THE PROTOHISTORIC PERIOD
In Malaysia, protohistory refers to the period from about the end of the first century CE to the beginning of the 15th century when the historic period began with the emergence of Melaka. To reconstruct the protohistoric period, scholars utilize archaeological findings and textual sources of Greek, Egyptian, Indian, Chinese and Arab-Persian origin. Among the earliest of these to include reference to Malaysia were Greek texts dating from the 1st century CE.
Indian sources consist of Hindu and Buddhist literature, and Tamil writings. Obscure references to Suvarnabhumi ('Land of Gold') and Suvarnadvipa ('Golden Island') are believed to refer to Malaysia, while Kataha is thought to have been Kedah. More information on Kedah comes from early Indian sources, such as the Nalanda inscription, dated 850 CE, and the Cola inscription of 1025.
The largest volume of knowledge on Malaysia's protohistoric period derives from China. Important sources include narratives by Buddhist monks, such as Faxian (5th century CE) and Yiqing (late 7th century). Political and trade relations were recorded by chroniclers such as Zhou Chufei (12th century) and Zhao Rukua (13th century). These documents record the names of various states, their locations, natural resources, culture, administrative structures and social hierarchy. However, because some place names in Chinese dialects have been difficult to decipher, the exact locations of some early kingdoms are still unknown. These include Chi tu, in the interior of Kelantan; Langkasuka, near Patani (Southeast Thailand); and Pan-pan, on the Peninsular east coast.
Reports on Southeast Asia by Arab-Persian travellers emerged in the 9th century when the expansion of Islam accelerated trade between West Asia, India and China. These sources also posed difficulties in locating places such as Kalah, probably Kedah, and Zabaj and Tiyumah, now known to be Srivijaya and Pulau Tioman, respectively. By comparing Arab and Chinese texts, and relating them to archaeological finds, scholars have slowly deciphered these locations.
Archaeologists have also successfully located important protohistoric sites, including remnants of early Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in the Bujang Valley (Kedah), Beruas (Perak) and Santubong (Sarawak). At the port sites of Kuala Selinsing (Perak) and the Bernam Valley (Perak/Selangor), it is evident that animism was being practised. Even today, the Orang Asli and some ethnic groups of Sabah and Sarawak still retain animist beliefs. On the east coast of the Peninsula, finds of engraved stones and gold coins are evidence that Islam had begun to be established in Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang before the founding of Melaka in the early 15th century.
