THE PORT KINGDOMS
The early importance of the region now known as Malaysia was mainly due to its strategic location in the centre of the Malay Archipelago, midway between the sea and land routes linking India and China, as well as its highly desirable rainforest and sea products. Metals were among the most valued trade items, and as the world's most extensive tin deposits are located on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, it is not surprising that Malaysia's earliest evidence of international commerce has been found there. Most sites uncovered by archaeologists were accessible from the sea or via navigable rivers, for maritime trade was an essential element in the emergence of early polities. Between the 5th and 16th centuries, a number of places in Kedah and Perak appear to have functioned as exchange centres, particularly for Indian merchants, while finds of Chinese and Southeast Asian ceramics provide further evidence of a flourishing international trade. Other settlements, which served as feeder ports to larger entrepôts, played an important role in regional trade. Current interpretations suggest that Santubong in Sarawak supplied iron to larger centres nearby, and by this means established connections throughout the Archipelago and beyond.
The context in which these port kingdoms arose is difficult to reconstruct because of sparse evidence. Sites could have been overlooked owing to changes in coastal contours or river courses, while losses also occurred because significant discoveries were made before the introduction of scientific archaeological methods.
Throughout early history, one port would expand to become the dominant centre, while others operated as subsidiary markets. For example, at the height of Srivijaya's authority, local ports still flourished as long as they did not challenge their overlord. Similarly, after the founding of Melaka, Beruas accepted vassal status and continued to trade. This coexistence of a number of ports from which a leader periodically emerged has been called the 'rhythm' of Malay history.
Ports beside the Melaka Strait and in western Borneo shared the same cultural world. Some were located near mountains, which indigenous beliefs associated with powerful spirits, suggesting that ports developed at locations already enjoying prestige as centres of power. Such places acted as conduits for outside ideas, especially religion. Along the Peninsular west coast, interaction with India brought knowledge of Hinduism and Buddhism, as attested by temple remains and statuary. Similarities between Malaysian and Sumatran sculptures, and stylistic links between gravestones in Aceh and Beruas, indicate that this was a culturally interactive environment which survived despite the rise and fall of political and economic centres. Local legends reinforce the sense that a common store of myths and heroes developed in the region. Perhaps the most important cultural element was the successful adaptation of outside ideas to fit the local culture, an ability which has always been one of the strengths of Malay culture.
